Turkic languages

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Turkic
Geographic distribution:	From Southeastern Europe to Western China and Siberia
Linguistic classification:	One of the world's primary language families
Proto-language:	Proto-Turkic
Subdivisions:	Common Turkic Oghur
ISO 639-5:	trk
Glottolog:	turk1311[1]
Turkic languages

The Turkic languages are a language family of at least thirty-five^[2] languages, spoken by Turkic peoples from Southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China. The Turkic languages originated in a region spanning Western China to Mongolia from where it expanded to Central Asia and farther west.^[3]
Turkic languages are spoken as a native language by some 170 million people, and the total number of Turkic speakers, including second-language speakers, is over 200 million.^[4][5][6] The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, the native speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.^[3]
Characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family.^[3] There is also a high degree of mutual intelligibility among the various Oghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, Balkan Gagauz Turkish, and Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar.^[7]

Contents

• 1 Characteristics
• 2 History
  • 2.1 Early written records
  • 2.2 Geographical expansion and development
• 3 Classification
  • 3.1 Schema
  • 3.2 Members
• 4 Vocabulary comparison
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 Further reading
• 8 External links

Characteristics

See also: Altaic languages

Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family.

History

See also: Proto-Turkic language, Turkic peoples, and Turkic migration

The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West (see picture in the box on the right above).^[8]

Early written records

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.^[9]
The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries.

Geographical expansion and development

With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese and to a lesser extent, Arabic.^[10]

This section requires expansion. (May 2008)

Classification

For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.^[11] This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922)^[12] and are mainly based on the development of *d. However, there are still many questions for which ongoing research has not yet found an adequate solution.^{[citation needed]}
The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches:^[13]

• Common Turkic
  • Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic)
  • Northwestern (Kipchak Turkic)
  • Southeastern (Karluk Turkic)
  • Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)
  • Arghu Turkic
• Oghur Turkic

In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged.^[14]
With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic.^[15]
Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.

Schema

The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:^[13]

• Rhoticisation, e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/,*-/k/,*-/kh/ in this branch.^[16] See Antonov and Jacques (2012) ^[17] on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic.
• Intervocalic *d, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" *hadaq
• Word-final -G, e.g. in the word for "mountain" *tāğ
• Suffix-final -G, e.g. in the suffix *lIG, in e.g. *tāğlığ

Additional isoglosses include:

• Preservation of word initial *h, e.g. in the word for "foot" *hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
• Denasalisation of palatal *ń, e.g. in the word for "moon", *ań

isogloss	Old Turkic	Turkish	Azerbaijani	Uzbek	Uyghur	Tatar	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Altay	Western Yugur	Fu-yü Gyrgys	Khakas	Tuvan	Sakha/Yakut	Khalaj	Chuvash
z/r (nine)	toquz	dokuz	doqquz	toʻqqiz	toqquz	tuğız	toğız	toğuz	toğus	dohghus	doğus	toğıs	tos	toğus	toqquz	tăχăr
*h- (foot)	adaq	ayak	ayaq	oyoq	ayaq	ayaq	ayaq	ayaq	ayaq	azaq	azıχ	azaχ	adaq	ataχ	hadaq	ura
*VdV (foot)	adaq	ayak	ayaq	oyoq	ayaq	ayaq	ayaq	ayaq		azaq	azıχ	azaχ	adaq	ataχ	hadaq	ura
*-g (mountain)	tag	dağ*	dağ	togʻ	tağ	taw	taw	tō	tū	tağ	daχ	tağ	dağ	tıa	tāğ	tu
suffix *-g (mountainous)	taglıg	dağlık*	dağlıq	togʻlik	tağlıq	tawlı	tawlı	tōlū	tūlu	taglig	daglug					tûlûh
*-ń (village)	köy-	köy-		kuy-	köy-/küy-	köy-	küy-	küy-	küy-			köy-			kiěn- küñ

*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the ğ in dağ and dağlık is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.

Members

The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)^[18]

Proto-Turkic	Common Turkic	Southwestern Common Turkic (Oghuz)			Pecheneg (extinct)
			West Oghuz		Old Anatolian Turkish (extinct) Ottoman Turkish (extinct) Turkish Iraqi Turkmen Gagauz Azerbaijani Balkan Gagauz Turkish
			East Oghuz		Turkmen Khorasani Turkic
			South Oghuz		Afshar Dialects of Iran such as Qashqai, Sonqori, Aynallu, etc.
		(Arghu)			Khalaj[19]
		Northwestern Common Turkic (Kipchak)			Kipchak (extinct)
			West Kipchak		Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Crimean Tatar, Urum[20] Krymchak Cuman (extinct) Karaim
			North Kipchak (Volga–Ural Turkic)		Kazan Tatar Mishar Tatar West Siberian Tatar[21] Bashkir
			South Kipchak (Aralo-Caspian)		Kazakh Karakalpak Kyrgyz[22] Kipchak Uzbek (Fergana Kipchak language) (extinct) Nogay
		Southeastern Common Turkic (Karluk)	West		Uzbek
			East		Uyghur Taranchi Salar[23] Chagatay (extinct) Aini[24] Ili Turki
		Northeastern Common Turkic (Siberian)	North Siberian		Sakha (Yakut) Dolgan
			South Siberian	Sayan Turkic	Tuvan (Soyot, Uriankhai) Tofa
				Yenisei Turkic	Khakas Fuyü Gïrgïs Shor (Saghay Qaca, Qizil) Western Yugur (Yellow Uyghur)[25][26][27][28][29]
				Chulym Turkic	Chulym (Küerik)
				Altai Turkic[30]	Altay Oirot and dialects such as Tuba, Qumanda, Qu, Teleut, Telengit
	Oghur				Chuvash Khazar (extinct) Bulgar (extinct) Turkic Avar (extinct)

Vocabulary comparison

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The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words).
Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place.
Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived ateş, whereas the native od is rare). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

	Common meaning	Old Turkic	Turkish	Azerbaijani	Turkmen	Tatar	Bashkir	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash
-	Father, ancestor	Ata	Ata	Ata	Ata	Äti	Ata(y)	Ata	Ata	Ota	Ata	Ata	Ate
	Mother	Ana	Ana/Anne	Ana	Ene	Äni	Inä(y)/Asay	Ana	Ene	Ona	Ana		Anne
	Son	O'gul	Oğul/Oğlan	Oğul	Ogul	Ul	Ul	Ul	Uul	Oʻgʻil	Oghul	Uol	Yvăl, Ul
	Man	Er(kek)	Er(kek)	Ər/Erkək	Erkek	İr	İr(käk)	Er(kek)	Erkek	Erkak	Er	Er	Ar/Arşçin
	Girl	Kyz	Kız	Qız	Gyz	Qız	Qıð	Qız	Kız	Qiz	Qiz	Ky:s	Hĕr
	Person	Kişi	Kişi/Şahıs	Kişi/Şəxs	Kişi	Keshe	Keşe	Kisi	Kishi	Kishi	Kishi	Kihi	Şçin
	Bride	Kelin	Gelin	Gəlin	Gelin	Kilen	Kilen	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kelin	Kylyn	Kin
	Mother-in-law		Kaynana	Qaynana	Gaýyn ene	Qayın ana	Qäynä	Qayın ene	Kaynene	Qaynona	Qeyinana		Hun'ama
Body parts	Heart	Yürek	Yürek	Ürək	Ýürek	Yöräk	Yöräk	Jürek	Jürök	Yurak	Yürek	Süreq	Čĕre
	Blood	Qan	Kan	Qan	Gan	Qan	Qan	Qan	Kan	Qon	Qan	Qa:n	Jun
	Head	Baš	Baş	Baş	Baş	Baş	Baş	Bas	Bash	Bosh	Bash	Bas	Puś
	Hair	Qıl	Kıl	Qıl	Gyl	Şäş/kıl	Qıl	Qıl	Kıl	Qil	Qil	Kıl	śûs/χul
	Eye	Köz	Göz	Göz	Göz	Küz	Küð	Köz	Köz	Koʻz	Köz	Kos	Kuś
	Eyelash	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kerfek	Kerpek	Kirpik	Kirpik	Kiprik	Kirpik	Kirbi:	Hărpăk
	Ear	Qulqaq	Kulak	Qulaq	Gulak	Qolaq	Qolaq	Qulaq	Kulak	Quloq	Qulaq	Gulka:k	Hălha
	Nose	Burun	Burun	Burun	Burun	Borın	Moron	Murın	Murun	Burun	Burun	Murun
	Arm	Qol	Kol	Qol	Gol	Qul	Qul	Qol	Kol	Qoʻl	Qol	Qol	Hul/Hol
	Hand	El(ig)	El	Əl	El			Alaqan	Alakan		Ilik	Ili:	Ală
	Finger	Barmak	Parmak	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmaq	Barmaq	Barmaq	Barmak	Barmoq	Barmaq		Pürne/Porn'a
	Fingernail	Tyrnaq	Tırnak	Dırnaq	Dyrnak	Tırnaq	Tırnaq	Tırnaq	Tyrmak	Tirnoq	Tirnaq	Tynyraq	Čĕrne
	Knee	Tiz	Diz	Diz	Dyz	Tez	Teð, tubıq	Tize	Tize	Tizza	Tiz	Tüsäχ	Čĕrpuśśi
	Calf	Baltyr	Baldır	Baldır	Baldyr	Baltır	Baltır	Baltır	Baltyr	Boldir	Baldir	Ballyr	Pıl
	Foot	Adaq	Ayak	Ayaq	Aýak	Ayaq	Ayaq	Ayaq	Ayak	Oyoq	Ayaq	Ataq	Ura
	Belly	Qaryn	Karın	Qarın	Garyn	Qarın	Qarın	Qarın	Karyn	Qorin	Qerin	Qaryn	Hyrăm
Animals	Horse	At	At	At	At	At	At	At	At	Ot	At	At	Ut
	Cattle	Siyir, İnek	Sığır, İnek	İnək, Sığır	Sygyr	Sıyer	Hıyır	Sïır	Sıyır	Sigir	Siyir	Inax	Vıleh
	Dog	Yt	İt	İt	It	Et	Et	Ït	It	It	It	Yt	Jytă
	Fish	Balyq	Balık	Balıq	Balyk	Balıq	Balıq	Balıq	Balık	Baliq	Beliq	Balyk	Pulă
	Louse	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bit	Bet	Bet	Bït	Bit	Bit	Pit	Byt	Pyjtă/Put'ă
Other nouns	House	Uy	Ev	Ev	Öý	Öy	Öy	Üy	Üy	Uy	Öy		Av*
	Tent	Otag	Otağ	Otaq	Otag					Oʻtoq	Otaq	Otu:	cha'ta(r)
	Way	Yol	Yol	Yol	Ýol	Yul	Yul	Jol	Jol	Yoʻl	Yol	Suol	Śul
	Bridge	Köprüq	Köprü	Körpü	Köpri	Küper	Küper	Köpir	Köpürö	Koʻprik	Kövrük	Kürpe	Kĕper
	Arrow	Oq	Ok	Ox	Ok	Uq	Uq	Oq	Ok	Oʻq	Oq	Oχ	Uhă
	Fire	Ot	Od	Od	Ot	Ut	Ut	Ot	Ot	Oʻt	Ot	Uot	Vut/Vot
	Ash	Kül	Kül	Kül	Kül	Köl	Köl	Kül	Kül	Kul	Kül	Kül	Kĕl
	Water	Suv	Su	Su	Suw	Su	Hıw	Su	Suu	Suv	Su	Uu	Šyv/Šu
	Ship, boat	Kemi	Gemi	Gəmi	Gämi	Köymä	Kämä	Keme	Keme	Kema	Keme		Kimĕ
	Lake	Köl	Göl	Göl	Köl	Kül	Kül	Köl	Köl	Koʻl	Köl	Küöl	Külĕ
	Sun/Day	Küneš	Gün(eş)	Gün(əş)	Gün	Kön	Kön	Kün	Kün	Kun	Kün	Kün	Kun
	Cloud	Bulut	Bulut	Bulud	Bulut	Bolıt	Bolot	Bult	Bulut	Bulut	Bulut	Bylyt	Pĕlĕt
	Star	Yulduz	Yıldız	Ulduz	Ýyldyz	Yoldız	Yondoð	Juldız	Jıldız	Yulduz	Yultuz	Sulus	Śăltăr
	Earth	Topraq	Toprak	Torpaq	Toprak	Tufraq	Tupraq	Topıraq	Topurak	Tuproq	Tupraq	Toburaχ	Tăpra
	Hilltop	Töpü	Tepe	Təpə	Depe	Tübä	Tübä	Töbe	Töbö	Tepa	Töpe	Töbö	Tüpĕ
	Tree/Wood	Yağac	Ağaç	Ağac	Agaç	Ağaş	Ağas	Ağaş	Jygach	Yogʻoch	Yahach		Jyvăś
	God (Tengri)	Tengri	Tanrı	Tanrı	Taňry	Täñre	Täñre	Täñiri	Teñir	Tangri	Tengri	Tanara	Tură/Toră
	Sky, Blue	Kök	Gök	Göy	Gök	Kük	Kük	Kök	Kök	Koʻk	Kök	Küöq	Kăvak/Koak
Adjectives	Long	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uzyn	Ozın	Oðon	Uzın	Uzun	Uzun	Uzun	Uhun	Vărăm
	New	Yany	Yeni	Yeni	Ýaňy	Yaña	Yañı	Jaña	Jañı	Yangi	Yengi	Sana	Śĕnĕ
	Fat	Semiz			Semiz	Simez	Himeð	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Semiz	Emis	Samăr
	Full	Tolu	Dolu	Dolu	Doly	Tulı	Tulı	Tolı	Tolo	Toʻla	Toluq	Toloru	Tulli
	White	Aq	Ak	Ağ	Ak	Aq	Aq	Aq	Ak	Oq	Aq
	Black	Qara	Kara	Qara	Gara	Qara	Qara	Qara	Kara	Qora	Qara	Xara	Xura
	Red	Qyzyl	Kızıl	Qızıl	Gyzyl	Qızıl	Qıðıl	Qızıl	Kızıl	Qizil	Qizil	Kyhyl	Hĕrlĕ
Numbers	1	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Ber	Ber	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bir	Bi:r	Pĕrre
	2	Eki	İki	İki	Iki	İke	İke	Eki	Eki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikki	Ikkĕ
	4	Tört	Dört	Dörd	Dört	Dürt	Dürt	Tört	Tört	Toʻrt	Tört	Tüört	Tăvattă
	7	Yeti	Yedi	Yeddi	Ýedi	Ğide	Yete	Jeti	Jeti	Yetti	Yetti	Sette	Şichche'
	10	On	On	On	On	Un	Un	On	On	Oʻn	On	Uon	Vun'(a)
	100	Yüz	Yüz	Yüz	Ýüz	Yöz	Yöð	Jüz	Jüz	Yuz	Yüz	Sü:s	Şe'r
		Old Turkic	Turkish	Azerbaijani	Turkmen	Tatar	Bashkir	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash