Midfielder Hakan Çalhanoğlu says Turkey have been
"waiting impatiently" for their opening game against Croatia – and
believes "showing our talent" will give them a good shot at glory.
Hakan Çalhanoğlu on ... a long wait We've
been waiting impatiently for this day to come. This will be a big day,
for all our country. We are ready for the match and we've prepared well.
We've done what was necessary; our coach Fatih Terim has prepared us
well and we feel good. Now let's hope we get a good result. Hakan Çalhanoğlu on ... the preparation period We've
gone 14 or 15 matches with only one defeat. As a team, we've developed
very well. I am hoping that, against good opposition, we can maintain
the same team spirit on the field. We shouldn't forget that Croatia are
tough opponents. But if we play in our own style, if we show our talent,
we have a good shot.
Hakan Çalhanoğlu on ... Turkey's match winners There
are lots of players with that capability. Anyone can do anything on the
pitch, including me. I hope we're lucky enough for that opportunity to
arise. We'd like to keep going beyond the group and we are hoping to get
three points. Hakan Çalhanoğlu on ... his free-kick technique Of
course there have been players I’ve looked up to in the past. I love
David Beckham and Juninho Pernambucano. But now I have found my own
style. Hakan Çalhanoğlu on ... the tournament prospects All
the UEFA EURO 2016 groups are difficult. Spain might look like the
favourites in ours but for me anything can happen in this group. All the
members of our team take great pleasure in playing for Turkey. We have
young players and experienced ones. We have a good atmosphere within the
squad.
Overview. Turkic
languages originated in the steppes of Central Asia from where they
were carried west by nomadic peoples to reach Turkey and the Balkans,
and north and east advancing into European Russia and Siberia.
Comprising some thirty members and spoken by more than 160 million
people, they are of the agglutinating type and typologically quite
similar.
Distribution. Turkic
languages are distributed over a vast territory ranging from eastern
Europe to east Siberia and China. Their core area is in Central Asia
(Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Xinjiang in
China) from where they spread west to northern Iran and the South
Caucasus, Turkey and part of the Balkans, and to the north into European
and Asiatic Russia straddling the Volga, Ob and Yenisei rivers reaching
northeast Siberia and the Arctic Ocean.
Map of Turkic languages distribution (click to enlarge it)
External Classification. The external classification of Turkic languages is disputed. Many scholars consider them one of the three subfamilies of the Altaic family (the other two are Tungusic and Mongolic).
However, the parallelisms between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic are too
few, according to others, to support the unity of Altaic and,
therefore, they may be independent families.
Internal Classification. In contrast, there is agreement regarding the internal classification of Turkic. It is divided into six branches:
1.The SouthwesternorOghuz branch contains a western group comprising Turkish, Gagauz, and Azerbaijanian and an eastern group comprising Turkmenand Khorasani Turkic. The Salar
language of China seems to be Oghuz in origin but during its eastward
migration it acquired features from northwestern and southeastern
languages.
2.The NorthwesternorKipchakbranch has a western group comprising Kumyk,Karachay-Balkar, Crimean Tatar, and Karaim, a northern group comprising Tatar and Bashkir, and a southern group comprising Kazakh, Karakalpak, Kipchak Uzbek (considered a dialect of Kazakh), Nogai, and Kirghiz (Kyrgyz).
3.The SoutheasternorUyghur-Karluk branch has a western group represented by Uzbek and an eastern group represented by Uyghur.
4.The Northeasternor Siberian branch has a southern heterogeneous group comprising Tuvan (Tuva), Karagas (Tofa), Khakas, Shor, Chulym, Altai, Yellow Uyghur (West Yugur) and a northern group comprising Yakut(Sakha) and Dolgan.
5.Chuvash situated in the northwestern area (in the Volga region).
6.Khalaj situated in the southwestern area (northwest Iran).
Speakers. The
total number of Turkic speakers is close to 164 million. The following
is a complete list of living Turkic languages with their number of
speakers and distribution:
Russia (border with China, Kazakhstan and Mongolia)
Russia (close to border with Mongolia, north of Altai)
Iran (Markazi Province, north of Arak)
China (northwest Gansu province)
Russia (north of Altai and west of Khakas)
Russia (Sakha Republic in north Siberia)
Lithuania, Ukraine (Halych)
Russia (southern Siberia, Chulym River basin)
Russia (southern Siberia)
Note: It is not possible to
estimate accurately the number of Khorasani Turkic speakers. There may
be between 400,000 and one million or more.
Oldest Documents.They
appear in the territory of the second Türk empire, written in Old
Turkic with the native 'runic' script. The earliest are engraved in an
ensemble of four stone stelae erected, between 720 and 735, in the
Orkhon valley (northern Mongolia) in honor of several rulers (the king
Kaghan Bilge, his brother the prince Kol Tegin and their commander
Tonyuquq). They tell about the origins of the Turks, their subjugation
by the Chinese and subsequent liberation by Bilge.
SHARED FEATURES
✦Phonology
-Syllable structure.
Most syllables have a (C)V(C) structure i.e. they contain a vowel that
may be preceded by an initial consonant and/or followed by a final
consonant. Initial consonant clusters are avoided as well as vowel
hiatus (two adjacent vowels in different syllables).
-Vowels.
Many Turkic languages (Turkish among them) have a completely
symmetrical vowel system regarding height (4 high and 4 low vowels),
frontness (4 front and 4 back), and roundness (4 unrounded and 4
rounded):
The
symbols are those current in writing, when they differ from those of
the International Phonetic Alphabet the latter are indicated between
brackets.
Some
languages (Turkmen, Khalaj, Yakut) exhibit a phonemic contrast between
short and long vowels; those in the Volga region (Chuvash, Bashkir,
Tatar) have reduced vowels.
-Consonants. Most
Turkic languages have a contrast between voiceless and voiced stops and
fricatives, though a few others, like Chuvash, have only voiceless
ones. They are usually articulated at four or five places: labial,
dental-alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular-glottal. Gagauz and Karaim
have palatalized consonants acquired by Slavic influence.
-Sound harmony. It
is widespread in Turkic. The most general type is intrasyllabic
affecting the vowel and consonant(s) of a given syllable. The whole
syllable is classified as front or back; in front syllables only front
vowels and front consonants are allowed; in back syllables the opposite
is true.
There
is also an intersyllabic type of harmony in which words tend to consist
of syllables produced with either a back or a front tongue position. In
some languages, like Yakut and Kirghiz, harmony may be extended to
vowel roundness.
-Accent. Turkic
languages have a pitch accent (increase of the tone height), which
tends to fall on the last syllable. Some suffixes are accentable while
others are not. There is also a stress accent which tends to fall on the
first syllable.
✦Morphology
It
is agglutinative and suffixing. Stems are expanded by adding
unchangeable and clear-cut monosyllabic suffixes, of which many serve to
express grammatical notions. Morphology is regular and predictable and
there is little or no fusion between morphemes. There are virtually no
prefixes. The order of suffixes is rigidly established, derivational
suffixes preceding inflectional ones. Each added suffix tends to modify
the whole preceding stem.
Nominal
-Nouns are marked for number, possession and case (in that order). There are no grammatical genders.
-The plural number is usually marked with the suffix lar/ler.
-Possession
may be indicated by possessive suffixes or by independent possessive
pronouns (genitive of personal and demonstrative pronouns). The latter
are usually employed for emphasis. Demonstrative pronouns distinguish
three deictic degrees (proximal, intermediate, and distal).
-There
are six general cases: nominative (unmarked), accusative, genitive,
dative, locative and ablative. Not all Turkic languages have this whole
six-case system. For example, Yakut lacks genitive and locative but has a
partitive case; in Chuvash the dative and accusative have merged; in
Kumyk, Karachai-Balkar and in some Uzbek dialects the accusative and the
genitive have merged. Other, subsidiary, cases are: equative ('like'),
terminative ('until'), comitative (company), instrumental ('by means
of'), directive ('towards'), etc.
-Adjectives are morphologically similar to nouns. Intensive adjectives may be formed by reduplication of the first syllable.
-Superlatives
are formed by adding particles meaning ‘most' or 'best'; comparatives
are expressed by particles meaning ‘more' or by putting the standard of
comparison in the ablative case.
-There is an indefinite article (identical to number one) but no definite articles. Demonstratives can, sometimes, act as such.
Verbal
-To
the verb root derivational suffixes can be added to build up the verb
stem conferring causative, reflexive, negative, passive meanings, etc.
To the stem, tense/aspect suffixes and personal endings usually follow.
The first and second persons are marked by personal suffixes, the third
person is usually unmarked.
-Non-finite forms include infinitives, participles, and verbal adverbs (converbs).
✦Syntax
-Word
order is Subject-Object-Verb in Turkic languages. They are head final,
modifiers preceding their head. In the nominal phrase the order is:
demonstrative pronoun-cardinal number-adjective-head noun. Attributes do
not agree in number or case with their heads.
-Postpositions,
corresponding to English prepositions, are placed after the words they
modify. Conjunctions are used sparingly and most of the existing ones
have been borrowed from non-Turkic languages. In genitive constructions
the possessor, which is the first element, carries a genitive suffix
while the possessed carries a possessive suffix.
Scripts
Turkic languages have
been written with a great variety of scripts in the past (Runic, Uyghur,
Brāhmī, Manichean, etc). The Arabic script was used for all Turkic
languages after the adoption of Islam and until the beginning of the
20th century when it was replaced in many countries by the Latin or
Cyrillic scripts. It is still used in China and Iran.
In the former
territory of the Soviet Union, Cyrillic-based scripts were imposed for
all Turkic languages until its dissolution when some of them started a
process of change into the Latin alphabet. The latter was introduced in
Turkey in 1923.
The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West (see picture in the box on the right above).[8]
Early written records
The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium
is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also
includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical
distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.[9]
The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholicmissionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries.
For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively
and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced
mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.[11]
This has obscured the historical developments within each language
and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to
classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes
for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922)[12]
and are mainly based on the development of *d. However, there are still
many questions for which ongoing research has not yet found an adequate
solution.[citation needed]
The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches:[13]
In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged.[14]
With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic.[15]
Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern
and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while
the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral
languages.
Schema
The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:[13]
Rhoticisation, e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" *toqqız.
This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of
Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhoticisation refers to the
development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/,*-/k/,*-/kh/ in this
branch.[16] See Antonov and Jacques (2012) [17] on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic.
Intervocalic *d, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" *hadaq
Word-final -G, e.g. in the word for "mountain" *tāğ
Suffix-final -G, e.g. in the suffix *lIG, in e.g. *tāğlığ
Additional isoglosses include:
Preservation of word initial *h, e.g. in the word for "foot" *hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
Denasalisation of palatal *ń, e.g. in the word for "moon", *ań
*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the ğ in dağ and dağlık is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.
Members
The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)[18]
This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the section. Consider associating this request with a WikiProject.(November 2010)
The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words).
Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is
lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the
concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a
cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place.
Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to
another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some
cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a
loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for
"fire" is the Persian-derived ateş, whereas the native od is rare). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.
![[icon]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
